Since the adoption of a multicultural policy in the early seventies¸
multiculturalism has been a topic much debated¸ and at times hotly
debated¸ in Canadian society. Similarly, adaptation to ethnocultural
pluralism has emerged as a major subject of discussion for Canadian educators
as¸ in the wake of a national multicultural policy¸ school
systems have attempted to adjust to and accommodate diversity.
The purpose
of this document is two-fold: First¸ it offers a brief glossary
of key concepts often used in discussions of ethnocultural pluralism in
our schools. Secondly¸ it provides a historical overview of the
Canadian policy of multiculturalism and of the development of multicultural
education in Canada¸ and a discussion of approaches. It represents
an update of the Glossary of Terms¸ published by the CCMIE in 1991.
It is
hoped that the glossary will provide clear definitions of the key concepts
and events, which are frequently referred to in discussions of multicultural
policy¸ ethnocultural diversity in schools and multicultural/intercultural
education. The terms included in the glossary were chosen either because
they reflected basic philosophical principles underlying educational approaches;
sociological concepts related to education and/or ethnic relations; or
terms found in statements of policy (educational or other).
Aboriginal
peoples: The indigenous occupants of a country or territory. In Canada,
the 1982 Constitutional Act confers official aboriginal status on status
Indians, non-status Indians, Inuit and Métis. As the indigenous
people of Canada, aboriginal peoples argue that they have collective entitlements
which were never extinguished and that they are rightfully entitled to
special considerations. In the renegotiations surrounding constitutional
reform (ie.: 1982 Constitutional Act, Meech Lake, Charlottetown Accord),
aboriginal peoples have presented their position as a relatively independent
nation within Canadian nationalism.
Acculturation:
Absorption into a cultural group, the result of contact of at least two
autonomous cultural groups. Usually refers to the process of a minority
group giving up its own cultural traits and adopting those of the dominant
society. Increasingly, the term "cultural assimilation" is used
rather than acculturation.
Affirmative
Action: Positive action undertaken to overcome under-representation
of certain groups (women, minorities) in employment or post-secondary
institutions. See "employment equity".
Allophone:
A term more frequently used in Quebec, it refers to a person whose mother
tongue is not one of the official languages of Canada (French or English).
Anglophone:
There are different definitions for this term. An Anglophone is considered
to be a person whose mother tongue is English or whose home language is
English. It can also refer to a person who now uses English as the language
of communication (Public Services Act). Depending on the definition, the
number of Anglophones in a given region will vary.
Anti-racist
education:
An approach to education designed to eradicate racism in all its forms
and denounce social, economic and educational inequalities to which ethnocultural
groups are subject. It relies on a systemic approach to change (as opposed
to the teaching of social issues within curriculum content). One of its
primary aim is to promote critical thinking about racism and its origins
among teachers and students.
Assimilation:
This concept refers to a one-way process through which newcomers are assimilated
into the host society by adopting the languages, customs, values and finally,
way of life of the dominant groups. As the individual or group becomes
absorbed into the dominant culture(s), the original cultural identity
is replaced with that of the dominant group. This term has negative connotations
and is associated with the notion of loss and/or renunciation of one's
original culture (see "acculturation"). As a concept, it is
frequently referred to in opposition to integration . See "integration".
Bias:
Prejudicial opinions or attitudes about particular groups because of their
race or ethnic origins.
Bilingualism
(official):
Since 1969 (adoption of the first Official Languages Act), Canada is an
officially bilingual country. In 1982, French and English were constitutionally
entrenched as official and equal languages. In 1988, a new Official Languages
Act was adopted, bringing legislation into line with the 1982 constitutional
clauses. Official bilingualism is restricted to federal institutions where
people have the right to receive services and to work in the official
language of their choice. Historically, some degree of official bilingualism
was agreed to by certain provinces at the moment of their entry into Confederation
(Manitoba, Quebec). New Brunswick and Ontario, although not held to bilingualism
through their terms of entry into Confederation, have more recently put
in place language legislation - in the case of New Brunswick, the province
is now by the terms of the Constitution officially bilingual; in the case
of Ontario provincial legislation recognizes the use of the two languages
within provincial services.
Charter
groups: In the Canadian context, the term refers to three groups:
Anglophones, Francophones and Aboriginal Peoples. The English and French
population were recognized in the 1867 Constitutional Act as founding
members of Canadian society and within the 1982 Constitutional Act as
official language groups. Both Constitutional Acts acknowledge and enshrine
rights and privileges to the English and French speaking population of
Canada (ie.: rights to education, to federal services, etc.). In recent
constitutional negotiations, Aboriginal peoples have striven to be recognized
as "founding members" of Canadian society and to have the same
rights to collective privileges as Anglophones and Francophones.
Citizenship
education: Learning activities, curriculum and/or educational programs
- at any educational level - concerned with the rights and responsibilities
of citizenship. The purpose of citizenship education is to promote knowledge,
skills and attitudes conducive to effective participation in civic life.
Compensatory education: An educational approach which attempts to "compensate" for the cultural and linguistic backgrounds of students entering the school system at a "disadvantage" (immigrant children, visible minority children, children of poverty) through special programs. This was one of the first approaches to be put forward within the educational adaptation to a diverse student population. Strategies such as peer-tutoring and special languages programs were common;y proposed within this approach.
Critical
thinking: Critical thinking involves questioning rather than accepting
given knowledge. Students are taught to discover and create knowledge,
to think and value for themselves. It is sometimes referred to as "informed
skepticism".
Cultural
communities: Social groups which have emerged from an immigrant population
and have a distinct culture. It does not include "charter groups",
i.e.: English, French and Aboriginal peoples. This term is common in Quebec
and can be found in a number of policy documents. In the other provinces,
the term "ethnic minorities" is used in much the same way.
Cultural
maintenance/revitalization: Refers to efforts to sustain a culture
by asserting its way of life (ideology, lifestyles, arts, language). In
Canada, this term can be associated with heritage language programs, schooling
for official language minorities, schooling for aboriginal peoples and
separate schools .
Cultural
relativism: Refers to the stance that each culture should be assessed
and approached on its own terms and within its own logic rather than by
some arbitrarily selected criteria from outside of that culture. Within
cultural relativism, cultural practices must be examined as equally good
and valid expressions of human diversity.
Culture:
A concept which continues to be the subject of much debate. From a sociological
or anthropological perspective, culture is used to refer to much more
than the arts or folklore. In its most general sense within the social
sciences, culture refers to the socially inherited body of learning characteristic
of human societies (including knowledge, values, beliefs, customs, language,
religion, art, etc), rather than to the specific part of social heritiage
having to with manners and art.
Discrimination:
Unfavorable treatment and/or denial of equal treatment of individuals
or groups because of race, gender, religion, ethnicity or disability (different
from bias which refers to prejudicial attitudes that may lead to discrimination).
Direct discrimination can be defined as the reaction of an individual
or a group of individuals to any of the above characteristics, leading
to unfair treatment of that individual or group, as opposed to systemic
discrimination. See "systemic racism/discrimination".
Dominant
group: In sociology, dominant group refers to the group which possesses
the power and authority to reproduce the prevailing distribution of power,
wealth and status in society. The dominant group is often, but not necessarily,
the numeric majority. Historically, Francophones in Quebec represented
a demographic and political majority, but sociologically, until the Quiet
Revolutionof the 1960s, they represented a minority group ("majorité
minoritaire").
Employment
equity: Refers to formal efforts to reverse historical trends that
have contributed to certain groups being relegated to lower income brackets
and lower occupational status (women, blacks). See "affirmative action".
Employment
Equity Act: Adopted by the federal government in 1986. Under the provisions
of the Act, employers and administrators are expected to increase the
selection and promotion of some specifically targeted groups to a proportion
equivalent to their numbers in the regional labor market. Preferential
treatment and special measures may be required to increase the proportional
representation of some groups.
Enpowerment:
Simon (1987) defines enpowerment as the process by which students critically
adopt knowledge outside of their experiences, so as to have a vision of
the world that is "not yet" - in order to be able to alter the
grounds upon which life is lived. Enpowerment
is generally understood as creating conditions that brings someone into
a state where they can act.
Entitlement:
Refers to the conferral of certain rights and privileges to a certain
group or category of groups based on their collective and regional status
in society. For example, in Canada, special rights are accorded to aboriginal
peoples because of their status of first occupants of this country and
to Anglophones and Francophones as founding groups within the Canadian
Confederation.
Equal
education opportunities: Extending comparable opportunities to all
individuals within a school system regardless of race, color, creed, age,
sex, socioeconomic class or ability. See "compensatory education".
Equity:
Refers to equal opportunity. As a concept underlying social and educational
perspectives, it takes into consideration the existence of systemic obstacles
and social inequalities and proposes policies and practices to counter
these, thus, providing all individuals and groups, the possibility of
educational success, employment and social mobility.
Ethnic:
An adjective used to refer to a group of individuals who share and identify
with certain common traits, such as language, ancestry, homeland, history,
and cultural traditions.
Ethnic
boundaries: The divisions that are "constructed" between
groups and which ensure a sense of "peoplehood" among the members
of a particular ethnic group. Certain common characteristics are used
to distinguish between "in-group" members and "out-group"
members. Boundaries can be maintained by certain social practices, for
example, the prohibition of mixed marriage.
Ethnicity:
There exists more than one definition for ethnicity. It can be used to
describe how people are defined, differentiated, organized and entitled
to group membership based on shared physical or cultural characteristics.
Ethnicity can also be used in reference to a consciously shared system
of beliefs, values, practices and loyalties shared by members of a group
who perceive themselves as a group. Ethnicity can essentially be thought
of as an attachment that a person or a group feels towards a common cultural
heritage.
Ethnic
identification: Identification with a specific kind of ethnic character
or group. Awareness of the ethnic character of one’s self or of others.
Similarly, "racial identification".
Ethnic
groups: Subgroups within a larger society or cultural order that are
distinguished by their national religious linguistic cultural and sometimes
racial background.
Ethnic
relations:
Contact and interaction between or among groups.
Ethnic
stratification: See "social stratification".
Ethnocentrism:
Ethnocentric habitual disposition to judge foreign peoples or groups by
the standards or practices of one's own culture or ethnic group. See "
cultural relativism ".
Hidden
curriculum: In opposition to the formal curriculum, refers to the
implicit messages transmitted by the teaching process and school environment.
Some argue that the hidden curriculum can be more powerful than the formal
one and that the "hidden messages" embedded within content materials,
policies and teaching practices can teach students their place in the
social hierarchy, perpetuating the social inequality of different groups.
The hidden curriculum does not only reinforce ethnic inequality, but also,
and often times simultaneously, gender and social class inequalities.
Within the goals of multicultural education can often be found ones aimed
at altering the messages of the hidden curriculum and the validation of
the identity and self-concept of all students.
Immigration:
The process in which people move to and permanently settle in a country
other than the one they were born in.
Inclusion/Incluvisity:
Refers to a view of society and education in which "difference"
is not a negative concept and in which members from diverse groups (whether
differences are gender, race/ethnicity or social class related) are encompassed
as much as students and members of the white dominant culture.
Inclusive
schools/schooling/curriculum:
The term "inclusive" when used in regard to educational institutions
or programs refers to the successful education of all students while acknowledging
and respecting diversity.
Intercultural
education: Like multiculturalism and multiculltural education, interculturalism
and intercultural education are terms with many different definitions.
Intercultural education is defined as a perspective or approach which
recognizes the social, cultural and economic interdependance and interaction
of ethnocultural groups living within one country. See discussion in section
threee of this document.
Integration:
Process of uniting the diverse groups of a society into a cohesive and
harmonious whole, without losing their distinctiveness. During the sixties
and seventies, the concept of integration replaced that of assimilation
as a basis for government policies in countries such as Canada and New
Zealand. Ideologically speaking, integration is thought of in opposition
to assimilation.
Minority
group: Sociologically, the concept "minority group" does
not refer to demographic numbers, but is used for any group which is disadvantaged,
underprivileged, excluded, discriminated against, or exploited. As a collective
group, a minority occupies a subordinate status in society.
Mosaic:
Refers to the presence of many different ethnocultural communities co-existing
in harmony. Often used in opposition to the notion of the American "melting
pot". See "vertical mosaic".
Multicultural
education: Education intended to clarify one's own ethnic identity
and to promote the appreciation of that of others, reduce prejudice and
stereotyping and promote cultural pluralism and equal participation in
social institutions (see "intercultural education"). See broader
discussion in section three of this document.
Multiculturalism:
Multiculturalism is a term sometimes used to refer to an ideology, sometimes
to a policy, sometimes to the ethnic composition of a society. Generally
speaking, multiculturalism can be defined as a doctrine which officially
acknowledges and promotes the existence of cultural diversity as an integral
component of society. Canadian Multiculturalism Act (Bill C-93): Federal
statute promulgated in 1988, guaranteeing recognition for the different
ethnic groups in Canadian society. This Act is an extension of the 1971
multiculturalism policy, the goals of which are as follows: to preserve
the culture of ethnocultural groups; abolish obstacles to access to and
participation by ethnocultural groups in the economic, social, cultural
and political life of Canada and to promote ethnic relations. Bill C-93
stressed the right of all groups to equality of opportunity and the stance
that each culture must be recognized as being equal to others.
Nonvisible
minority:
In contrast to visible minorities, non-visible minorities are those of
north-western European ancestry (ie.: Australians, New Zealanders, Dutch,
etc.). Given their light skin color, these groups are not easily distinguishable
from the dominant majority in countries such as Canada and the United
States. See "visible minority".
Pluralism:
A concept which has generated a fair amount of confusion. It is currently
used to express the notion of a society in which groups can remain voluntarily
apart from each other when it comes to traditions, cultural practices
and beliefs, while sharing a set of commonly held values and consensus
on social and political norms. Not to be confused with pluralism, the
concept of plural societies refers to societies in which dominant and
subordinate groups remain socially, politically, organizationally and
culturally apart from one another .
Prejudice:
A body of unfounded opinions or attitudes relating to an individual or
group that represent this individual or group in an unfavorable light.
Prejudice encompasses personal beliefs and rationalizations which allow
for unwarranted stereotyping of racially or culturally different outgroups
and a predisposition to act negatively toward them, thus, often leading
to discrimination.
Race:
A term used to describe people who were classified together on the basis
of genetically transmitted physical similarities (such as skin color,
shape of the eyes, hair texture), deriving from their common descent and
who are also frequently thought to share cultural and social traits. Usually,
however, a racial group will include a number of different ethnic communities.
Race
relations: Race and ethnic relations refer to the recurrent patterns
of interaction among groups socially defined as biologically and/or culturally
different.
Racial
identification: See "ethnic identification".
Racism:
Refers to a set of beliefs (often complex) which asserts the natural superiority
of one racial group over another, at the individual but also the institutional
level. In one sense, racism refers to the belief that biology rather than
culture is the primary determinant of group attitudes and actions. This
belief can then be used to extol the inherent superiority of certain "races"
and justify deferential treatment and social positions. Racism goes beyond
ideology, however, involving discriminatory practices that protect and
maintain the position of certain groups and sustain the inferior position
of others. When discussing racism, it is important to distinguish between
personal and direct forms of racism, and impersonal, institutional and
systemic racism. See "systemic racism".
Refugees:
Uprooted, homeless, voluntary or involuntary migrants who flee their native
country, usually to escape danger or persecution because of their race,
religion or political views and who no longer possess the protection of
their former government.
Segregation:
The process or practice of separating groups on the basis of culture or
race. Segregation can occur voluntarily orinvoluntarily, be formal or
informal.
Social
integration: See "integration".
Social
mobility: Refersto change in the social status of individuals and
groups (usually in terms of upward mobility).
Social
values: Principles and standards of human interaction within a given
group that are regarded by that group as being worthy, important, or significant.
See "value education".
Stereotypes:
Stereotyping in the general sense refers to mental images which organize
and simplify the world into categories on the basis of common properties.
When used in reference to race or ethnic relations, stereotypes refer
to a shared consensus regarding the generalized attributes of others (both
physical and cultural attributes). For example, "Scots are cheap",
"Blacks are good athletes". While stereotyping is a basic cognitive
strategy used to reduce the amount of diversity to manageable proportions,
they interfere with our perceptions and understanding of the world, when
applied to individuals or groups. Often stereotyping gives rise to discrimination
and racist behavior. See "prejudice", "bias".
Symbolic
ethnicity: Refers to a cognitive or emotional affiliation with a cultural
past or heritage and is characterized by a minimal involvement in the
daily and organizational life of that particular group.
Systemic
racism/discrimination: Despite apparently neutral rules, policies
and procedures, the existence of subtle, impersonal, covert, sometimes
unintentional discrimination against minorities within institutions persists.
Tokenism:
Superficial efforts or symbolic gestures toward complying with desegregation
or equal opportunity laws rulings or guidelines
Tolerance:
Openness to experience, social acceptance.
Value
education:Efforts to teach about values and/or to develop certain
values in schools.
Vertical
mosaic: A term coined by John Porter, a Canadian sociologist, which
recognizes the existence of a system of stratification which leaves certain
groups (racial and ethnic) at a disadvantage. Porter proposed that any
policy which aimed at the recognition of diversity would only perpetuate
the unequal mosaic and advantage dominant groups, a stance which has been
strongly contested.
Visible
Minorities: A term used to refer to non-white racial minorities. It
is also usually acknowledged that being a member of a visible minority
increases the chances of discrimination or racism. See "nonvisible
minorities".
Glossary Of Terms provided by the Canadian Council for Multicultural and
Intercultural Education.
